Health and safety issues concerning commercial marketing Of Edible Wild Mushrooms in British Columbia

By Paul Kroeger

Vancouver Mycological Society (VMS) was formed in 1979 by mushroom enthusiasts who mostly shared a common interest in eating wild fungi. When the society was formed part of its stated purpose was “To assist in educating the public in the collection and identification of fungi, with emphasis on the safe separation of edible from toxic fungi.”

Wild mushrooms have gained great popularity and are commercially collected and sold in an unregulated environment and usually without preparation instructions.  Reports of adverse reactions after consuming commercially marketed wild mushrooms are not uncommon. Certain mushrooms that are widely considered edible species appear repeatedly in reports of adverse reactions from mushroom ingestion. See Table 3 p.11: Anomalous edible mushroom poisoning.

Mushroom clubs such as the Vancouver Mycological Society play an important role in informing the public of health hazards associated with eating wild mushrooms and how to avoid them. In this discussion we address some issues surrounding wild mushrooms gathered and distributed as culinary commodities and especially aspects of quality control that effect human health. Similar issues appear in the current “medicinal mushroom” trade but are not addressed here, unless the fungus is also popular for food as well, an example being the Hericium species.

There are a variety of reasons why mushrooms considered edible may cause illness in consumers. Some of these causes and contributing factors are discussed below:

Some species are toxic unless cooked. This is especially relevant with the popular morel mushrooms. In 1991 raw fresh morels were served in a salad at a banquet held in a major Vancouver hotel, and 77 (16%) of the 483 people attending reported illness. Many edible mushrooms contain small amounts of hydrazines and other volatile compounds that are toxic or carcinogenic but are eliminated by cooking, others have heat-sensitive hemolytic proteins.

It should be noted that wild mushrooms offered for sale may have microbial contamination from the environment in which they grow, and from the handling, storage and transportation involved in harvest and marketing. Cooking these mushrooms is thus also an important food hygiene practice.

 Over-mature and poorly stored mushrooms may contain micro-organisms of incipient decay and are often implicated in adverse reactions. Many people involved in marketing mushrooms may not recognize signs of aging and decay in unfamiliar species, or may be reluctant to lose profit by discarding aging product.

Mushrooms can grow in habitats that have a history of human disturbance and mushrooms collected in such areas may contain heavy metals or other chemical contaminants from agricultural, industrial, transportation or other human activities. Certain saprobe fungi such as oyster mushrooms are even used in attempts to remediate contaminated sites.

Wild mushrooms are biochemical factories that create and contain very complex and largely unknown chemistry. It is well known, though,  that many compounds found in fungi have strong antibiotic effects, and it’s suspected that consuming even well known edible species in excess or when improperly prepared can cause gastrointestinal distress by disrupting a person’s natural  intestinal  biota.

Improperly preserved wild mushrooms can cause food-borne illness from microbial toxins. Mushrooms are very high risk for home canning because of their neutral pH and close contact with soil microbes such as Botulinum bacteria. Safe canning requires acidification and thorough pressure processing. Other preservation techniques such as brining and storing under oil have also resulted in serious illnesses.

Several wild mushrooms classified as edible in popular guide books are implicated in multiple reports of adverse reactions among consumers. Some incidents involve factors already discussed such as inadequate cooking, over-consumption or microbial contamination; but others don’t and are attributed to individual sensitivities or intolerances that might be present in a significant portion of the population.  For this reason certain species could be considered as posing too high a risk to consumer health to be safely marketed as edible mushrooms, examples include all Leccinum species or rough-stemmed boletes, and Phaeolepiota aurea.

Wild mushrooms offered for sale in markets have occasionally been misidentified. For example, there have been sporadic observations of the false morel Gyromitra esculenta being represented as true morels! This is potentially serious because false morels contain toxic hydrazines, compounds responsible for both short term acute poisonings and for chronic effects as known carcinogens.

Itinerant or opportunistic pickers of commercial wild mushrooms may have limited mycological knowledge or experience, and the consumer might have even less familiarity with mushrooms. There are currently no requirements ensuring that marketed wild mushrooms are accurately identified. Certain edible species may require considerable mycological expertise to accurately distinguish from problematic look-alikes and should not be marketed unless identified by an experienced mycologist.

There is currently no means of certifying that wild mushrooms offered for sale are correctly identified by individuals with adequate mycological knowledge and experience. Jurisdictions in many other areas have certification programs for wild mushrooms that require inspection of marketed material by individuals certified as having mushroom identification qualifications.

Sometimes marketed wild mushrooms are referred to only by a common name without the technical or scientific binomial. There is currently no standardized system of common names for mushrooms in North America, so to avoid confusion the technical scientific name is important in identifying and labelling marketed mushrooms. It’s desirable to have a standardized list of approved market mushrooms with standardized common names linked to the scientific binomials.

Some ethical and conservation considerations

Mushroom harvest is prohibited in protected park areas such as National, Provincial Regional and most municipal parks and all Ecological Reserves.  Special Management areas and Community forest lands may have restrictions on harvest of non timber forest products (NTFPs) including mushrooms.

Mushrooms growing on First Nations lands are resources belonging to First Nations people. People not of First Nations communities must obtain permission to access those resources.

Certain edible wild mushrooms may become considered “Species at Risk” if declines in their populations or distribution are demonstrated. Continued exploitation of these species would be inappropriate.

Some suggested Guidelines for the commercial wild mushroom market

• Only those species of wild mushrooms known to be safe and tolerated by most people should be sold. A list of approved market species would be desirable with standardized common names linked to scientific binomial names.
  
  
• A monitoring or inspection and certification system should be established to ensure that marketed wild mushrooms are wholesome and safe for public consumption. This would ensure the mushroom species is approved as safe for consumption, and that the product is neither decayed nor contaminated.
• To achieve oversight of the commercial wild mushroom industry it will be necessary to have qualified knowledgeable personnel trained to identify approved market mushrooms, possible look-alike species and known poisonous mushrooms. These individuals should also be trained to assess the freshness and suitability for consumption of samples of approved market mushrooms, and to instruct others about identification and quality control of mushrooms.
  
  
• Recommended standards of packaging and labelling should be developed for commercial wild mushrooms. Packaging should be appropriate for reducing potentially harmful spoilage and contamination, for example by requiring wrappings to allow air exchange preventing anaerobic conditions. Labels should clearly identify the mushroom or mushrooms contained and advise cooking before consuming.
  
  
• Basic information on wild mushroom food safety practices should be made available to those dealing with wild mushrooms where produce is marketed and in the restaurant industry. Guidelines for safe mushroom selection, handling, storage and preparation should be developed and disseminated as printed materials or educational courses.
  
  
• The need to cook wild mushrooms before eating should always be clearly communicated to the consumer. “Cook before Eating” labels or stickers are recommended.
  
  
• Sellers and vendors of wild mushrooms should be instructed to be diligent in trimming or culling over-aged or deteriorating mushrooms.

It must be pointed out that attempting to impose mandatory regulatory controls over the wild mushroom trade would probably be challenging and possibly resented; harvest and distribution of mushrooms has developed in an informal atmosphere and operates largely as a grey economy.

Harvest and field buying of mushrooms is a seasonal activity which takes place throughout much of BC around small communities where it provides an irregular but often important source of income for rural populations.

Below are listed some British Columbia mushrooms considered to be good edibles and which are candidates for approved status for commercial trade. Many of these species may make their way to farmers’ market stalls, produce stores or restaurants.

Please note that while some are considered choice and safe for most of us to eat, others can cause problems for certain people or if not properly prepared. These problematic species are indicated with an asterisk* and three types, Chickens of the woods (2 species of Laetiporus) and Lobster mushrooms (Hypomyces lactifluorum), are especially problematic. The Laetiporus were excluded because they have failed to achieve popularity, but Lobster mushrooms are retained because they have.

All wild mushrooms should be cooked before eating.

Table 1: List of potential market wild mushrooms for British Columbia

1)     Boletus edulis group	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product, seem under-utilized in BC.
2)     Boletus fibrillosus	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product, seem under-utilized in BC.
3)     Boletus mirabilis	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product, seem under-utilized in BC.
4)     Boletus rex-veris	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product, seem under-utilized in BC.
5)     Boletus zelleri	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product, seem under-utilized in BC.
6)     Cantharellus cascadensis	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, mostly fresh market.
7)     Cantharellus formosus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, mostly fresh market.
8)     Cantharellus roseocanus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, mostly fresh market.
9)     Cantherellus subalbidus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, mostly fresh market.
10)  Craterellus cornucopioides	Good market mushroom	Rare in BC. Suitable as dried product.
11)  Craterellus tubaeformis	Good market mushroom	Seems under-utilized in BC. Potential important commercial mushroom
12)  Gomphus clavatus	Good market mushroom	Considered endangered in many parts of Europe, extinct in Britain.
13)  Grifola frondusus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, rare in BC
14)  Hericium abietis	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, increasing in value and of medicinal interest.
15)  Hericium americanus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, increasing in value and of medicinal interest.
16)  Hericium coralloides	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, increasing in value and of medicinal interest.
17)  Hericium erinaceus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom, increasing in value and of medicinal interest. Rare in BC.
18)  Hydnum repandum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
19)  Hydnum umbilicatum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
20)  Hypomyces lactifluorum *	problematic	Important commercial species. Quality control issues exist. Causes occasional GI upset.
21)  Imleria badius	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
22)  Lactarius deliciosus	Good market mushroom	Little known here.
23)  Lactarius deterrimus	Good market mushroom	Little known here.
24)  Lactarius rubrilacteus	Good market mushroom	Little known here.
25)  Lepista nuda	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown. Can grow in contaminated environments.
26)  Lyophyllum decastes	Little known	Identification challenging, tolerances unknown. Can grow in contaminated environments.
27)  Morchella spp. *	problematic	Important commercial mushroom, especially suitable for dried product. Fresh should have “cook before eating” label. Can grow in contaminated environments.
28)  Pleurotus ostreatus	problematic	Competes with cultivated Oyster mushrooms. Wild have quality issues and can grow in contaminated environments.
29)  Polyozellus atrolazulinus	Good market mushroom	Was Polyozellus multiplex. Conservation status of concern, uncertain due to lack of distribution data.
30)  Polyozellus marymargaretae	Good market mushroom	Was Polyozellus multiplex. Conservation status of concern, uncertain due to lack of distribution data.
31)  Rozites caperata	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown
32)  Russula xerampelina	Little known	Identification issues, tolerances unknown
33)  Sparassis crispa	Good market mushroom	Cauliflower mushroom, highly desirable but not well known as market mushroom.
34)  Suillus borealis	Little known	Suitable for dried product
35)  Suillus brevipes	Little known	Suitable for dried product
36)  Suillus granulatus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
37)  Suillus lakei	Little known	Suitable for dried product
38)  Suillus luteus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
39)  Suillus species	Little known	Suitable for dried product
40)  Suillus subolivaceus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
41)  Tricholoma magnivelare	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom. High value almost all fresh market, much exported.
42)  Tuber gibbosum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom

 

How mushroom species were selected as potential market mushrooms

The mushrooms in the preceding list were selected from a larger list of mushrooms, see Table 2 p.7: Some Edible Wild Mushrooms of British Columbia, which are species classified as edible in popular field guides or reported as being sold in British Columbia. Species were eliminated from this larger list if they present problems in ensuring a potential consumer’s health.

Several of these have been recorded as causing negative reactions in sufficient numbers of people to be considered too high risk for a commercial market. See Table 3 p. 11 Anomalous Edible Mushroom Poisoning for a summary of frequently implicated “Edible” mushrooms.

Several saprobic mushrooms are excluded from the approved listing because they often grow in habitats associated with human disturbance and may present a higher than acceptable possibility of environmental contamination. Most are minor edibles not highly valued. Examples of such wild saprobes are Agaricus, Chlorophyllum and Coprinus. See Table 4 p. 12: Edible mushrooms with common names and life style or trophic mode.

 When saprobe mushroom species which might come from contaminated sites are retained on the approved list, it may be desirable to require some documentation of safe provenance. This would apply to such mushrooms as Lepista, Lyophyllum,  Morchella and Pleurotus.

Certain edible mushrooms present a challenge for most people to reliably identify and may closely resemble toxic species. Examples of mushrooms that present identification challenges are Agaricus, Armillaria, Chlorophyllum, Clitopilus, Lepista and Lyophyllum.

Table 2: Some Edible Wild Mushrooms of British Columbia

An asterix (*) following the name indicates mushrooms associated with human illness in mushroom poisoning reports.  Please see also Table 3 p. 11: Anomalous Edible Mushroom Poisonings.

Latin Name	Market suitability	Comments
Agaricus augustus	problematic	Identification problems, tolerances unknown
Agaricus campestris	problematic	Competes with cultivated button mushroom.  Quality control issues.
Armillaria species *	High risk, not suitable	Identification problems, quality control problems. Causes occasional GI upset.
Boletus edulis group	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product. Seems under-utilized in BC
Boletus fibrillosus	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
Boletus mirabilis	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
Boletus rex-veris	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
Boletus zelleri	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
Cantharellus cascadensis	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Cantharellus formosus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Cantharellus roseocanus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Cantherellus subalbidus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Catathelasma imperialis	Little known	Little known in BC
Chlorophyllum brunneum	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination.
Chlorophyllum olivieri	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination
Chlorophyllum rachodes	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination
Clitopilus prunulus	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination
Coprinus comatus	problematic	Not suitable for commercial market. Shipping and storage problems, habitat contamination.
Craterellus cornucopioides	Good market mushroom	Rare in BC
Craterellus tubaeformis	Good market mushroom	Seems under-utilized in BC. Potential important commercial mushroom
Flammulina velutipes	Problematic	May be myotoxic and cardiotoxic . Wild-grown not used as food but it is available in cultivated form.
Gomphus clavatus	Good market mushroom	Rare. Considered endangered in many parts of Europe, extinct in Britain.
Grifola frondusus	Good market mushroom	Important commercially, rare in BC
Hericium abietis	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Hericium americanus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Hericium coralloides	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Hericium erinaceus	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom. Rare in BC
Hydnum repandum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Hydnum umbilicatum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Hypomyces lactifluorum *	Problematic	Important commercial species. Quality control issues. Causes occasional GI upset.
Imleria badius	Good market mushroom	Suitable for dried product
Lactarius deliciosus	Good market mushroom	Little known in BC
Lactarius deterrimus	Good market mushroom	Little known in BC
Lactarius rubrilacteus	Good market mushroom	Little known in BC
Laetiporus conifericola *	High risk, not suitable	Quality control problems. Causes occasional GI upset. Only youngest growth stage is safe and desirable. Was called L. sulphureus
Laetiporus gilbertsonii *	High risk, not suitable	Quality control problems. Causes occasional GI upset. Only youngest growth stage is safe and desirable. Was called L. sulphureus
Leccinum aurantiacum *	High risk, not suitable	Causes occasional GI upset.
Leccinum scabrum*	High risk, not suitable	Causes occasional GI upset.
Leccinum species *	High risk, not suitable	Cause occasional GI upset.
Lepista nuda	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination.
Lepista praemagna	Little known	Little known in BC, traditional use.
Lyophyllum decastes	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown, habitat contamination.
Morchella spp. *	problematic	Important commercial mushroom especially suitable for dried product. Toxic raw, habitat contamination and quality control issues.
Phaeolepiota aurea*	High risk, not suitable	Causes frequent GI upset, habitat contamination.
Pleurocybella porrigens *	High risk, not suitable	Caused fatalities in Japan.
Pleurotus ostreatus	problematic	Competes with cultivated Oyster mushrooms.
Pluteus cervinus	Little known	Identification issues, not desirable.
Polyozellus atrolazulinus	Good market mushroom	Was Polyozellus multiplex. Conservation status of concern, uncertain due to lack of distribution data.
Polyozellus marymargaretae	Good market mushroom	Was Polyozellus multiplex. Conservation status of concern, uncertain due to lack of distribution data.
Rozites caperata	Little known	Identification problems, tolerances unknown
Russula xerampelina	Little known	Identification issues, tolerances unknown
Sarcodon imbricatus	Little known	Identification issues, not desirable.
Sparassis crispa	Good market mushroom
Suillus borealis	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus brevipes	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus granulatus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus lakei	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus luteus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus species	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Suillus subolivaceus	Little known	Suitable for dried product
Tricholoma flavovirens*  or Tricholoma equestre*	High risk, not suitable	Caused fatalities in France
Tricholoma magnivelare	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Tricholoma populinum	Little known	Little known in BC, traditional use.
Tuber gibbosum	Good market mushroom	Important commercial mushroom
Verpa bohemica	High risk, not suitable

 

Wild mushroom species that may be considered too high risk to be marketed Commercially or that may need special standards or labelling

 Armillaria species, Honey mushrooms: Frequently implicated with problems if over-mature and/or under-cooked. Accurate identification is critical because some dangerous mushrooms have similar growth habit and occur in the same habitat. These should be considered as high risk of causing illness.

Hypomyces lactifluorum, Lobster mushroom: Frequently implicated with problems if over-mature and/or under-cooked or with excessive or repeated consumption. Individual intolerance is apparent in some people. This is already a well established market mushroom sold fresh and dried. Lobster mushrooms sold fresh should have labels directing they be cooked before eating.

Laetiporus species, Chickens of the woods:  Usually marketed when over-mature and tough and unpalatable. Frequently causes gastrointestinal distress especially if undercooked. Only the very youngest and softest parts are edible and desirable. These should be considered as high risk of causing illness.

Leccinum species, rough stemmed boletes: Many cases of gastrointestinal upset are reported for various species. Individual intolerance may be common. The entire genus should be considered high risk of causing illness especially when fresh.

Morchella species sold fresh should have labels directing they be cooked before eating.

Phaeolepiota aurea, Gold-cap: Individual intolerance is frequent. These should be considered as high risk of causing illness.

Pleurocybella porrigens, Angel wings: This species was implicated in fatal poisonings in Japan. These should be considered as high risk of causing illness.

Tricholoma equestre or Tricholoma flavovirens, Man on horseback: In France these were implicated in fatal poisonings. These should be considered as high risk of causing illness.

 

Edible BC mushroom species that may have sustainability and conservation concerns

Craterellus cornucopioides is known only from a small area on southern Vancouver Island. Imported material apparently from California and Oregon appears in our markets at times.

Gomphus clavatus seems rare in BC and has been red-listed in many parts of Europe due to decline or extirpation. An old-growth associated mushroom.

 Grifola frondusus is only known in BC from Vancouver, Victoria and Greenwood in the Boundary district.

Hericium erinaceus is only known from the Salish Sea and southern Vancouver Island on Garry oak and broadleaf maple.

Polyozellus atrolazulinus and Polyozellus marymargaretae are recently recognized old-growth associated species with unknown distribution and range. Previously both were known as Polyozellus multiplex considered rather uncommon and locally abundant in only very few areas.

 

Table 3: Anomalous Edible Mushroom Poisoning

Mushroom involved Type of syndrome	Time of onset and notes	Symptoms
Armillaria species   Gastrointestinal upset	1 hour  to 5 hours Raw or undercooked or when over-mature.	Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
Hypomyces lactifluorum   Gastrointestinal upset	30 minutes to several hours. Undercooked or overmature	Severe gastrointestinal distress, cramping, disoriented, sweating, weak.
Laetiporus sulphureus and Laetiporus conifericola   Gastrointestinal upset, neurotoxic	Gastrointestinal 5 to 45 minutes. Undercooked or overmature. Neurotoxic about one hour after eating raw, in child.	Causes nausea, vomiting, dizziness, abdominal pain, headache and fatigue, tingling of extremities.  Also disorientation, ataxia, hallucinations in child.
Leccinum species   Gastrointestinal upset	1 to 5 hours May cause upset even if well cooked, exact species involved often unknown.	Diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, sweating and dry mouth, malaise, headache and dizziness.
Lentinula edodes   Skin rash and gastrointestinal upset	20 minutes to several hours Fresh cultivated mushrooms eaten raw or undercooked	Flagellate erythema (hives-like rash in streaks), Gastrointestinal upset, chills, disoriented, headache, muscle spasms, unconscious, weak, difficulty breathing
Morchella species   Gastrointestinal upset	5 to 45 minutes Toxic when eaten raw, alcohol consumed may also cause problems.	Nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain and cramping.
Phaeolepiota aurea Gastrointestinal upset	30 minutes to 2 hours Intolerance in certain individuals is common	Gastrointestinal upset with severe nausea.
Pleurocybella porrigens Encephalopathy: Deaths reported in Japan	2 to 3 weeks Patients all older males with kidney disease, most had received dialysis prior to ingestion.	Tremor, weakness of extremities, disturbance of consciousness, intractable seizures; cerebral cortex lesions.
Tricholoma equestre or flavovirens Rhabdomyolysis: Deaths reported in France	1 to 4 days following repeated meals (3 or more) over two weeks or more.	Fatigue, muscle weakness and pain, anorexia, nausea, profuse sweating, myogloburia; kidney failure.

 

Table 4: Some edible mushrooms with common names and life style or trophic mode

Latin Name	Common Names	Comments
Agaricus augustus	The Prince	Saprotroph
Agaricus campestris	Meadow mushroom	Saprotroph
Armillaria species *	Honey mushrooms *	Wood decay
Boletus edulis group	King bolete, Cep, Porcini	Ectomycorrhizal
Boletus fibrillosus	Dark king bolete	Ectomycorrhizal
Boletus mirabilis	Admirable Bolete	Ectomycorrhizal
Boletus rex-veris	Spring king bolete	Ectomycorrhizal
Boletus zelleri	Zeller’s bolete	Ectomycorrhizal
Cantharellus cascadensis	Cascade chamterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Cantharellus formosus	Golden Chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Cantharellus roseocanus	Rainbow Chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Cantherellus subalbidus	White chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Catathelasma imperialis	Giant Cat	Ectomycorrhizal
Chlorophyllum brunneum	Shaggy parasol	Saprotroph
Chlorophyllum olivieri	Shaggy parasol	Saprotroph
Chlorophyllum rachodes	Shaggy parasol	Saprotroph
Clitopilus prunulus	Sweetbread mushroom	Saprotroph
Coprinus comatus	Shaggy Mane	Saprotroph
Craterellus cornucopioides	Black chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Craterellus tubaeformis	Winter Chanterelle, Yellow Foot	Ectomycorrhizal
Flammulina velutipes	Enoke, Enoketake	Wood decay
Gomphus clavatus	Pig’s ear gomphus	Ectomycorrhizal
Grifola frondusus	Maitake	Wood decay
Hericium abietis	Bear’s Head or Lion’s Mane	Wood decay
Hericium americanus	Bear’s Head or Lion’s Mane	Wood decay
Hericium coralloides	Bear’s Head or Lion’s Mane	Wood decay
Hericium erinaceus	Bear’s Head or Lion’s Mane	Wood decay
Hydnum repandum	Hedgehog, Sweet Tooth	Ectomycorrhizal
Hydnum umbilicatum	Belly-button Hedgehog	Ectomycorrhizal
Hypomyces lactifluorum *	Lobster mushroom *	Parasite on Russula
Lactarius deliciosus	Orange Milkcap	Ectomycorrhizal
Lactarius deterrimus	Spruce Orange Milkcap	Ectomycorrhizal
Laetiporus conifericola *	Chicken of the Woods *	Wood decay
Laetiporus gilbertsonii *	Chicken of the Woods *	Wood decay
Leccinum aurantiacum *	Orange Cap bolete *	Ectomycorrhizal
Leccinum scabrum*	Birch bolete*	Ectomycorrhizal
Leccinum species *	Rough stem boletes *	Ectomycorrhizal
Lepista nuda	Blewit	Saprotroph
Lepista praemagna	Giant blewit	Saprotroph
Lyophyllum decastes	Fried Chicken mushroom	Saprotroph
Morchella spp. *	Morels *	Saprotroph
Phaeolepiota aurea*	Gold-cap*	Saprotroph
Pleurocybella porrigens *	Angels’ Wings *	Wood decay
Pleurotus ostreatus	Oyster mushroom	Wood decay
Pluteus cervinus	Deer mushroom	Wood decay
Polyozellus atrolazulinus	Blue or Purple Chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Polyozellus marymargaretae	Blue or Purple Chanterelle	Ectomycorrhizal
Rozites caperata	Gypsy mushroom	Ectomycorrhizal
Russula xerampelina	Shrimp mushroom	Ectomycorrhizal
Sarcodon imbricatus	Hawk’s wing, scaly hedgehog	Ectomycorrhizal
Sparassis crispa	Cauliflower mushroom	Root parasite?
Suillus brevipes	Short-stemmed slippery jack	Ectomycorrhizal
Suillus granulatus	Granulated slippery jack	Ectomycorrhizal
Suillus lakei	Lake’s bolete	Ectomycorrhizal
Suillus luteus	Slippery jack	Ectomycorrhizal
Suillus subolivaceus	Slippery Jill	Ectomycorrhizal
Tricholoma flavovirens *	Man on Horseback *	Ectomycorrhizal
Tricholoma magnivelare	Pine mushroom, Matsutake	Ectomycorrhizal
Tricholoma populinum	Big sandy	Ectomycorrhizal
Tuber gibbosum	Oregon white truffle	Ectomycorrhizal
Verpa bohemica	Early morel	Ectomycorrhizal

 

Table 5: Scientific names of BC’s edible mushrooms

 Here are current names for BC edible fungi, from Kroeger & Berch 2017 with some additions. Names conform to Index Fungorum. Scientific names for fungi are rapidly changing as genetic studies reveal how different species are related or not. Many mushrooms we knew by familiar European names are being recognized as new species native to this region.

Mushroom name and authority	Family	comments
Agaricus arvensis Schaeff.	Agaricaceae
Agaricus augustus Fr.	Agaricaceae
Agaricus bernardii Quel.	Agaricaceae
Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach	Agaricaceae
Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Sacc.	Agaricaceae
Agaricus campestris Fr.	Agaricaceae
Agaricus subrufescens Peck	Agaricaceae
Agaricus subrutilescens (Kauffman) Hotson & D.E. Stuntz	Agaricaceae
Agaricus sylvaticus Schaeff.	Agaricaceae	also as A.haemorrhoidarius
Agaricus sylvicola (Vittad.) Peck	Agaricaceae	as Agaricus silvicola
Armillaria cepistipes Velen.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria gallica Marxm. & Romagn.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria gemina Berube & Dessur.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria nabsnona T.J. Volk & Burds.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria ostoyae (Romagn.) Herink	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria sinapina Bérubé & Dessur.	Physalacriaceae
Armillaria solidipes Peck	Physalacriaceae
Aureoboletus flaviporus (Earle) Klofac	Boletaceae	as Boletus
Aureoboletus mirabilis (Murrill) Halling	Boletaceae	as Boletus
Boletus aereus Bull.	Boletaceae
Boletus barrowsii Thiers & A.H. Sm.	Boletaceae
Boletus coniferarum Lebedeva	Boletaceae
Boletus edulis Bull.	Boletaceae
Boletus erythropus Pers.	Boletaceae
Boletus ferrugineus Schaeff.	Boletaceae	Boletus spadiceus Schaeff.
Boletus fibrillosus Thiers	Boletaceae
Boletus regineus Arora & Simonini	Boletaceae
Boletus rubriceps D. Arora & J.L.Frank	Boletaceae
Boletus smithii Thiers	Boletaceae
Boletus subtomentosus L.	Boletaceae
Butyriboletus appendiculatus (Schaeff.) D. Arora & J.L. Frank	Boletaceae	as Boletus
Cantharellus californicus Arora & Dunham	Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus cascadensis J.S. Dunham, O’Dell & R. Molina	Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus cibarius Fr.	Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus formosus Corner	Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus pallens Pilat	Cantharellaceae	IF Cantharellus cibarius var. pallens
Cantharellus roseocanus (Redhead, Norvell & Danell) Redhead, Norvell & Moncalvo	Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus subalbidus A.H. Sm. & Morse	Cantharellaceae
Catathelasma imperiale (Quél.) Singer	Tricholomataceae
Catathelasma ventricosum (Peck) Singer	Tricholomataceae
Chlorophyllum brunneum (Farl. & Burt) Vellinga	Agaricaceae	also as Lepiota
Chlorophyllum olivieri (Barla) Vellinga	Agaricaceae
Chlorophyllum rachodes (Vittad.) Vellinga	Agaricaceae	also as Lepiota, as Macrolepiota rhacodes
Clitocybe praemagna (Murrill) H.E. Bigelow & A.H. Sm.	Tricholomataceae	As Lepista
Clitopilus prunulus (Scop.) P. Kumm.	Entolomataceae
Coprinus comatus (O.F. Müll.) Pers.	Agaricaceae
Cortinarius caperatus (Pers.) Fr.	Cortinariaceae	as Rozites caperata
Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers.	Cantharellaceae
Craterellus tubaeformis (Fr.) Quél.	Cantharellaceae	as Cantharellus tubaeformis, C.infundibuliformis
Flammulina populicola Redhead & R.H. Petersen	Physalacriaceae	as F. velutipes
Flammulina velutipes (Curtis) Singer	Physalacriaceae
Gomphus clavatus (Pers.) Gray	Gomphaceae	as Cantharellus clavatus
Grifola frondosa (Dicks.: Fr.) Gray	Meripilaceae
Hericium abietis (Weir ex Hubert) K.A. Harrison	Hericiaceae
Hericium americanum Ginns	Hericiaceae
Hericium coralloides (Scop.) Pers.	Hericiaceae	also as Hericium ramosum
Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers.	Hericiaceae
Hydnum ellipsosporum Ostrow & Beenken	Hydnaceae	as Hydnum sp. F19678
Hydnum indurescens D. Hall & D.E. Stuntz	Hydnaceae	Sarcodon indurescens (D. Hall & D.E. Stuntz) Stalpers
Hydnum repandum L.	Hydnaceae	as
Hydnum repandum variety albidum (Peck) Bres.	Hydnaceae	as Hydnum albidum
Hydnum repandum variety album (Quél.) Rea	Hydnaceae
Hydnum rufescens Pers.	Hydnaceae	as Hydnum repandum var. rufescens (Pers.) Barla
Hydnum subincarnatum K.A. Harrison	Hydnaceae	as Sarcodon
Hydnum umbilicatum Peck	Hydnaceae
Hypomyces lactifluorum (Schwein.) Tul. & C. Tul.	Hypocreaceae
Imleria badius (Fr.) Vizzini	Boletaceae	As Boletus badius
Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray	Russulaceae
Lactarius deterrimus Gröger	Russulaceae
Lactarius rubrilacteus Hesler & A.H. Sm.	Russulaceae
Laetiporus conifericola  Burds. & Banik	Fomitopsidaceae
Laetiporus gilbertsonii Burds.	Fomitopsidaceae
Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murrill	Fomitopsidaceae	as Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr.
Leccinum alaskanum V.L. Wells & Kempton	Boletaceae
Leccinum arctostaphyli V.L. Wells & Kempton	Boletaceae
Leccinum aurantiacum (Bull.) Gray	Boletaceae
Leccinum clavatum A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum discolor A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum fallax A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum fibrillosum A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum holopus (Rostk.) Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum insigne A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum manzanitae Thiers	Boletaceae
Leccinum ponderosum A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum potteri A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum scabrum (Bull.) Gray	Boletaceae	also as Leccinum rotundifoliae, Leccinum oxydabile (Singer) Singer
Leccinum subtestaceum A.H. Sm., Thiers & Watling	Boletaceae
Leccinum versipelle (Fr. & Hök) Snell	Boletaceae	also as Leccinum atrostipitatum
Lepista glaucocana (Bres.) Singer	Tricholomataceae
Lepista irina (Fr.) H.E. Bigelow	Tricholomataceae
Lepista nuda (Bull.) Cooke	Tricholomataceae	as Clitocybe nuda (Fr.) H.E. Bigelow & A.H. Sm.
Lepista personata (Fr.) Cooke	Tricholomataceae
Lepista tarda (Peck) Murrill	Tricholomataceae
Leucangium carthusianum (Tul. & C. Tul.) Paol.	Helvellaceae	as Picoa carthusiana Tul. & C. Tul.
Lyophyllum decastes (Fr.) Singer	Lyophyllaceae
Marasmius oreades (Bolton) Fr.	Marasmiaceae
Morchella americana Clowez & Matherly	Morchellaceae
Morchella angusticeps Peck	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete
Morchella conica Krombh.	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete: equals M. esculenta
Morchella costata (Vent.) Pers.	Morchellaceae
Morchella crassipes (Vent.) Pers.	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete
Morchella deliciosa Fr.	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete
Morchella elata Fr.	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete
Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers.	Morchellaceae	Recent revision, name now obsolete
Morchella frustrata M.Kuo	Morchellaceae
Morchella importuna M. Kuo, O’Donnell & T.J. Volk	Morchellaceae
Morchella snyderi M.Kuo & Methven	Morchellaceae
Morchella tridentina Bres.	Morchellaceae	as Morchella conica
Phaeolepiota aurea (Matt.) Maire	Agaricaceae
Pleurocybella porrigens (Pers.) Singer	Marasmiaceae	also as Pleurotus albolanatus
Pleurotus dryinus Pers.) P. Kumm.	Pleurotaceae
Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm.	Pleurotaceae
Pleurotus populinus O. Hilber & O.K. Mill.	Pleurotaceae
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél.	Pleurotaceae
Pleurotus subareolatus Peck	Pleurotaceae
Pluteus atromarginatus (Konrad) Kühner	Pluteaceae
Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff.) P. Kumm.	Pluteaceae	also as Pluteus atricapillus
Polyozellus atrolazulinus Trudell & Kõljalg	Thelephoraceae
Polyozellus marymargaretae Beug & I. Saar	Thelephoraceae
Polyozellus multiplex (Underw.) Murrill	Thelephoraceae
Russula xerampelina (Schaeff.) Fr.	Russulaceae
Russula xerampelina variety isabelliniceps C. Roberts nom prov	Russulaceae
Sarcodon imbricatus (L.) P. Karst.	Bankeraceae
Sparassis crispa (Wulfen) Fr.	Sparassidaceae
Stropharia rugosoannulata Farl. ex Murrill	Strophariaceae
Suillus albidipes (Peck) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus albivelatus A.H. Sm., Thiers & O.K. Mill.	Suillaceae
Suillus amabilis (Peck) Singer	Suillaceae	as Boletinus amabilis (Peck) Snell
Suillus borealis A.H. Sm., Thiers & O.K. Mill.	Suillaceae
Suillus brevipes (Peck) Kuntze	Suillaceae
Suillus caerulescens A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus cavipes (Opat.) A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus decipiens (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) Kuntze	Suillaceae
Suillus flavidus (Fr.) J. Presl	Suillaceae
Suillus flavogranulatus A.H. Sm., Thiers & O.K. Mill.	Suillaceae
Suillus glandulosipes Thiers & A.H. Sm.	Suillaceae
Suillus granulatus (L.) Roussel	Suillaceae
Suillus grevillei (Klotzsch) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus hirtellus (Peck) Snell	Suillaceae
Suillus lakei (Murrill) A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus luteus (L.) Roussel	Suillaceae
Suillus neoalbidipes M.E. Palm & E.L. Stewart	Suillaceae
Suillus ochraceoroseus (Snell) Singer	Suillaceae	as Fuscoboletinus
Suillus pictus (Peck) A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae	as Boletinus
Suillus placidus (Bonord.) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus ponderosus A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus pseudobrevipes A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus punctatipes (Snell & E.A. Dick) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus punctipes (Peck) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus sibiricus  (Singer) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus subaureus (Peck) Snell	Suillaceae
Suillus subolivaceus A.H. Sm. & Thiers	Suillaceae
Suillus tomentosus (Kauffman) Singer	Suillaceae
Suillus umbonatus E.A. Dick & Snell	Suillaceae
Suillus variegatus (Sw.) Richon & Roze	Suillaceae	as Suillus tomentosus F31018
Suillus viscidus  (L.) Roussel	Suillaceae	as Fuscoboletinus aeruginascens
Tricholoma caligatum (Viv.) Ricken	Tricholomataceae
Tricholoma equestre (L.) P. Kumm.	Tricholomataceae	also as Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) Redhead	Tricholomataceae
Tricholoma populinum J.E. Lange	Tricholomataceae
Tuber aestivum Vittad.	Tuberaceae	cultured
Tuber anniae W. Colgan & Trappe	Tuberaceae
Tuber besseyi Gilkey	Tuberaceae
Tuber beyeleri Trappe, Bonito & Guevara	Tuberaceae
Tuber borchii Vittad.	Tuberaceae	cultured ?
Tuber gibbosum Harkn.	Tuberaceae
Tuber giganteum Gilkey	Tuberaceae
Tuber melanosporum Vittad.	Tuberaceae	cultured
Tuber oligospermum (Tul. & C. Tul.) Trappe	Tuberaceae	as Tuber asa Tul. & C. Tul.
Tuber oregonense Trappe, Bonito & P. Rawl.	Tuberaceae
Tuber rapaeodorum  Tul. & C. Tul.	Tuberaceae	as Tuber rufum Picco
Tuber rufum Picco	Tuberaceae	UBC deposit pending
Tuber uncinatum Chatin	Tuberaceae
Verpa bohemica (Krombh.) J. Schröt.	Morchellaceae
Verpa conica (O.F. Müll.) Sw.	Morchellaceae
Xerocomellus chrysenteron (Bull.) Šutara	Boletaceae	as Boletus
Xerocomellus  truncatus (Singer, Snell & E.A. Dick) Klofac	Boletaceae	as Boletus
Xerocomellus  zelleri (Murrill) Klofac	Boletaceae	as Boletus

 

A Bibliography for Commercial wild mushrooms

Acker & K. Russell (1986) Harvesting wild edible mushrooms in Washington: An issue paper. The Edible Mushroom Task Group. Washington.

J.F. Ammirati (1985) Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. University of Minnesota Press.

Anonymous (1994) Workshop results- Pine Mushroom Task Force. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

Anonymous (2003) Abstracts: The third international workshop on edible mycorrhizal mushrooms. Victoria, B.C.

D. Arora (1986) Mushrooms Demystified. Ten Speed Press.

D. Arora (1991) All That The Rain Promises and More… Ten Speed Press.

D. Arora (2008) California porcini: three new taxa, observations on their harvest, and the tragedy of no commons. Economic Botany 62 (3): 356-375.

A. Bazzicalupo et al. (2018) White paper on strategies to reduce risks and expand appreciation of foraged wild mushrooms. (https://www.namyco.org/docs/EdiblePoisonousReport20170914.pdf).

BC Ministry of Forests and Range(2010) Harvesting edible wild mushrooms in BC. https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/publications/00028/harvest.htm (Jul 12, 2017).

D.R. Benjamin (1995) Mushrooms: Poisons and Panaceas. A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists and Physicians. W.H. Freeman and Company.

S. M. Berch and A.M. Wiensczyk (2001) Ecological description and classification of some Pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare) habitat in British Columbia. Ministry of Forests, Research Program, Research Report No. 19. Victoria.

S. M. Berch and W. Cocksedge (2003) Commercially important wild mushrooms and fungi of British Columbia: What the buyers are buying. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

M. Beug. (2016). Mushroom poisoning in North America, summary of voluntary reporting and news articles for 2015 and 2016. http://www.namyco.org/toxicology_reports.php (May 7, 2017).

M. Beug, M. Shaw, & K. Cochran (2006). Thirty-plus years of mushroom poisoning: Summary of the approximately 2,000 reports in the NAMA case registry. McIlvainea 16:47-68.

E. J. H. Corner (1966) A Monograph of Cantharelloid Fungi. Oxford University Press.

T. Ehlers, S. Berch and R. Winder (2010) Pacific Golden Chanterelle (Cantharellus formosus) Ecology and Productivity in the Nimpkish Valley, Northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Draft Report

T. Ehlers & T. Hobby (2010) The chanterelle mushroom harvest on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia: Factors relating to successful commercial development. BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management 11:72-83.

F.B.M. Consulting Ent. (1989) The harvesting of edible wild mushrooms in British Columbia. In: Integrated Resources Branch, B.C.F.S., editor. BC Ministry of Forests, Victoria BC.

S. Gamiet, H. Redenour and F. Philpot (1998). An overview of pine mushrooms in the Skeena-Bulkley Region. Northwest Institute for Bioregional Research, Smithers, B.C.

N. de Geus (ed.), S.A. Redhead & B. Callan (1992) Wild mushroom harvesting discussion session minutes. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

N. de Geus (ed.) (1995) Summary of public response: Pine Mushroom Task Force recommendations. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

N. de Geus (1995) Botanical forest products in British Columbia: An overview. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

N. de Geus, Scott Redhead and Brenda Callan (1992) Wild mushroom harvesting discussion session minutes. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

N. de Geus & S. Berch (1997) Tne Pine Mushroom industry in British Columbia. In Mycology in sustainable development; expanding concepts, vanishing borders. Ed. M. Palm & I. Capela. 55-67

J. Ginns (2017) Polypores of British Columbia (Fungi: Basidiomycota). Prov. B.C. Victoria. B.C. Tech. Rep. 104.

D. Hosford, D. Pilz, R. Molina and M. Amaranthus (1997) Ecology and management of the commercially harvested American Matsutake mushroom. USDA-FS PNW-GTR-412. Portland.

J.M. Kranabetter and P. Kroeger (2001) Ectomycorrhizal mushroom response to partial cutting in a western hemlock/western redcedar forest. Can. J. For. Res. 31: 978–987.

J. M. Kranabetter, J. Friesen, S. Gamiet & P. Kroeger (2005) Ectomycorrhizal mushroom distribution by stand age in western hemlock-lodgepole pine forests of northwestern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 35: 1527-1539.

J. M. Kranabetter, H. Williams & J. Morin (2009) Ecological descriptions of Pacific golden chanterelle (Cantharellus formosus) habitat and estimates of its extent in Haida Gwaii. B.C. Journal of Ecosystems and Management. 10: 59-67.

J. M. Kranabetter, R. Trowbridge, A. Macadam, D. McLennan and J. Friesen (2002). Ecological descriptions of pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare) habitat and estimates of its extent in northwestern British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 158: 249–261.

P.Kroeger (1991). ‘Yumm,’ said the police chief. Mushroom The Journal 34.

P. Kroeger & S. Berch (2017) Macrofungus species of British Columbia. Prov. B.C. Victoria. B.C. Tech. Rep. 108.

P. Kroeger, B. Kendrick, O. Ceska & C. Roberts (2012). The Outer Spores: Mushrooms of Haida Gwaii. Mycologue Publications and Haida Gwaii Museum.

L. Liegel, D. Pilz, & T. Love (1998). The MAB Mushroom Study: Background and concerns. In Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. Special Report Number 9: 3-7.

L. Liegel, D. Pilz, T. Love & E. Jones(1998). Integrating biological, socioeconomic, and managerial methods and results in the MAB Mushroom Study. In Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. Special Report Number 9: 26-33.

G. Lincoff and D.H. Mitchel (1977) Toxic and Hallucinogenic Mushroom Poisoning: A Handbook for Physicians and Mushroom Hunters. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

T. Love, E. Jones & L. Liegel (1998) Valuing the temperature rainforest: Wild mushrooming on the Olympic Peninsula Biosphere Reserve. In Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. Special Report Number 9: 16-25.

D. Malloch (1976) Morels: A gourmet’s delight. Agriculture Canada, Publication 1581.

M. McKenny, D. Stuntz and J. Ammirati (1994) The New Wild Savory Mushroom. Douglas and McIntyre.

H. McLean, S. Peck, G. Eng, R. Mathias, W. Black& G. Morgan (1987). Epidemiologic notes and reports restaurant-associated botulism from mushrooms bottled in-house — Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 36:103.

R. Molina, T. O’Dell, D. Luoma, M. Amaranthus, M. Castellano and K. Russell (1993) Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest: A preface to managing commercial harvest. USDA-FS PNW-GTR-309 Portland.

O. Persson and B. Mossberg (1997) The Chanterelle Book. Ten Speed Press Berkeley USA

M. J. Peterson, R. Outerbridge and John Dennis (2000) Chanterelle productivity on burned and unburned regeneration sites in the vicinity of Skidegate Lake on Moresby Island. Province of British Columbia Ministry of Forests.

D. Pilz, F.D. Brodie, S. Alexander & R. Molina (1998). Relative value of chanterelles and timber as commercial forest products. In Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. Special Report Number 9: 14-15.

D. Pilz, R. Molina, & L. Liegel (1998). Biological productivity of chanterelle mushrooms in and near the Olympic Peninsula Biosphere Reserve. In Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. Special Report Number 9: 8-13.

D. Pilz, L. Norvell, E. Danell and R. Molina (2003) Ecology and management of commercially harvested chanterelle mushrooms. USDA-FS PNW-GTR-576 Portland.

D. Pilz, R. Molina, and J. Mayo (2006) Effects of thinning young forests on chanterelle mushroom production. Journal of Forestry 104:9–14.

D. Pilz, R. McLain, S. Alexander, L. Villareal-Ruiz, S. Berch, T. Wurz, C. Parks, E. McFarlane, B. Baker, R. Molina and J. Smith (2007) Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested from the Forests of Western North America. USDA-FS PNW-GTR-710 Portland.

S.A. Redhead (1997) The Pine Mushroom industry in Canada and the United States: Why it exists and where it is going. In Mycology in sustainable development; expanding concepts, vanishing borders. Ed. M. Palm & I. Capela. 15-54

S.A. Redhead, L. Norvell and E. Danell (1997) Cantharellus formosus and the Pacific golden Chanterelle harvest in Western North America. Mycotaxon 65: 285-322.

J. Duane Sept (2006) Common Mushrooms of the Northwest. Calypso Press.

S. Tedder, D. Mitchell and R. Farran (2000) Seeing the Forest Beneath the trees: The Social and Economic Potential of Non-timber Forest Products and Services in the Queen Charlotte Islands/ Haida Gwaii. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Victoria.

R. Trowbridge, A. Macadam, and M. Kranabetter (1999). Ecological description and classification of highly productive pine mushroom sites in northwestern British Columbia. Northwest Institute for Bioregional Research, Smithers, B.C.

S. Trudell and J. Ammirati (2009) Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Timber Press.

N.J. Turner and P.von Aderkas 2009. The North American Guide to Common Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms. Timber Press.

 

Photographs